Derivation

1.1. Nouns formed from nouns: Agentive nouns (cf. also Notes on grammar 1)

• Prefixes:

• Suffixes:

1.2. Nouns formed from nouns: Diminutives/females

2. Verbs formed form verbs: Reduplication

(Following the analysis by Dolphyne, [1988: 124-138])
Reduplication is a word-formation process which consists of the repetition of the whole or part of a stem.

Compare the following simple and reduplicated forms of monosyllabic verbs:

Simple verb	Meaning	Reduplicated form
1. tuá	dig	tuátu
2. toá [tö]	fling, cast	toáto [töátöá]
3. tõá	buy	toátõ [töátõá]
4. dä	eat	dädi
5. teà [tò]	sit, live	tete [tòàtòà]
6. gyeá [gyò]	get	gyeágye [gyòágyòá]
7. daà	lie down, sleep	deda [dòàdaà]
8. dõá	cultivate, weed	doádõ [döádõá]
9. hwñá	look at	hweáhwñ [hwòáhwñá]
10. feà [fòà]	vomit	fefe [fòàfòà]
11. twaá	cut	twätwa
12. paá	remove	peápa/poápa [pòápaá/pöápaá]

Table 3a

• The first syllable of the reduplicated form is called its prefix.
• The consonant of the prefix is the same as the consonant of the stem.
• What changes in some cases is the vowel.

As you can see, the criteria for choosing the prefix vowel are straightforward:

(i) If the stem vowel is round (or back, if you prefer) the prefix vowel is also round; if the stem vowel is not round, the prefix vowel is unrounded and front.

(ii) If the stem vowel is of the high close variety, i.e. /i/ or /u/, the prefix vowel also is high close, of exactly the same quality. If the stem vowel is not high close, the quality of the prefix vowel is still high but at the same time unadvanced (-ATR), either |e| or |o|, pronounced [ò] and [ö].

If the stem vowel is -a, there seems to be some hesitation as to which vowel the prefix should take. Look at the following list of examples and try to find out:

(13) nyaá	get, receive	nyänya
(14) gyaá	leave behind	gyägya
(15) twaá	cut	twätwa/tuátwa
(16) suaà [sçaà]	be small	suàsua [sŠsçaà]
(17) kwaá	polish floor	koákwa [köákwaá]
(18) kaá	bite	keáka [kòákaá]
(19) kæé	say	køékæ [kûékæé]
(20) paá	remove	peápa/poápa [pòápaá/pöápaá]

Table 4

• If the consonant is unmodified or labio-palatalised, the prefix vowel is |e| (= [ò])
• Exception: /p/ may be considered to comprise a labial component; this is the reason why it can cause the prefix vowel to be |o| (= [ö]) as after labialisation (see next).
• If the consonant is labialised (lip rounding) without being at the same time palatalised, the prefix vowel is rounded.
• The nasalisation of the stem vowel disappears on the prefix vowel (compare (18) and (19)).

In all cases except (25) the syllable structure of the prefix replicates the syllable structure of the stem: if the latter is CV, the prefix is CV, if it is CCV, the prefix is CCV (e.g. in (27)), if it is CVCV, the prefix ist CVCV (e.g. (23), (24)).

The different behaviour of firi 'come from' reflects the fact that its second syllable is weak (-> Unit 2.7 d, examples (2) and (4) ) and may be dropped in certain circumstances.

And now try yourself to produce reduplicated forms of verbs: Exercise 2.

Hwñ yäe:

• For the tones of the reduplicated verbs, see Dolphyne (1988: 134 f.)
• For the reduplication of reduplicated verbs, see Dolphyne (1988: 132 f.)
• Tense-aspect forms of reduplicated verbs follow the same rules as those of simple verbs.

Examples:

Kofä rekaása.	Kofi is speaking.	Kofi rekasaákaàsa.	Kofi is complaining.
Kõfrñá no!	Go and call him/her!	Kõfrñáfràñ wõn!	Go and call them!
Aémmaá da mpaá noá soá.	Amma is sleeping on the bed.	Aémmaá rededaá ne baá.	Amma is putting her child to bed.

Word-formation is continued in:
-> Compounds (Notes on grammar 3)